Stepping outside of the box in terms of how member functions are normally declared in ES6 classes, is this not an effective way to implement a distinction between private and public members?
class IncrementedNumber {
constructor(x) {
const xPlus1 = x + 1;
this.getDouble = () => 2 * xPlus1;
this.getQuadruple = () => 2 * this.getDouble();
}
}
const x = new IncrementedNumber(6);
console.log(x.getDouble()); // 2 * 7 -> 14
console.log(x.getQuadruple()); // 2 * (2 * 7) -> 28
The class has a private member that is 1 greater than the number supplied as an argument to its constructor. The class then offers public operations for doubling and quadrupling the number.
The private member xPlus1 is superprivate insofar as even class members can't access it—if they lie outside of the constructor. But class methods can be defined inside the constructor, so what difference does it make?
The one loose end I see is that private members, in contrast to public members, are accessed without being prefixed by "this". But that seems negligible; one might even see it as a benefit, as it forces the developer to be aware of the respective visibilities of the class's members.
Are there downsides to this that I'm not seeing? We can define public methods outside of the constructor, but are we married to doing so? Given that public fields must be defined inside the constructor, is there some reason public methods must be defined outside of it?
Are there downsides to this that I'm not seeing?
It is less efficient
It does not work properly with inheritance
Other than that, yes it properly achieves privacy through closure scope, and is sometimes used for this.
Related
My question is specific to as3.
When I use this language, it seems to me that any variable with a getter and setter should be made public instead.
Whether you do this :
public class Test
{
private var _foo:String;
public function Test()
{
foo = "";
}
public function get foo():String
{
return _foo;
}
public function set foo(value:String):void
{
_foo = value;
}
}
or this :
public class Test
{
public var foo:String;
public function Test()
{
foo = "";
}
}
you will end up doing this eventually (to get or set your foo variable from another class) :
testObject.foo
And using a public variable looks much cleaner to me.
I know that I am missing something.
Could you please show me what it is?
Before we continue, understand that when you define getters and setters, they don't actually need to be associated with a property defined within the class. Getters simply have to return a value, and setters have to accept a value (but can do absolutely nothing if you wish).
Now to answer the question:
The most simple reason is that you can make properties read or write only, by declaring one without the other. In regards to read only, take a moment to consider the benefits of having a class expose a value without other parts of your application being able to modify it. As an example:
public class Person
{
public var firstName:String = "Marty";
public var lastName:String = "Wallace";
public function get fullName():String
{
return firstName + " " + lastName;
}
}
Notice that the property fullName is the result of firstName and lastName. This gives a consistent, accurate value that you would expect if firstName or lastName were to be modified:
person.firstName = "Daniel";
trace(person.fullName); // Daniel Wallace
If fullName was actually a public variable alongside the other two, you would end up with unexpected results like:
person.fullName = "Daniel Wallace";
trace(person.firstName); // Marty - Wait, what?
With that out of the way, notice that getters and setters are functions. Realize that a function can contain more than one line of code. This means that your getters and setters can actually do a lot of things on top of simply getting and setting a value - like validation, updating other values, etc. For example:
public class Slideshow
{
private var _currentSlide:int = 0;
private var _slides:Vector.<Sprite> = new <Sprite>[];
public function set currentSlide(value:int):void
{
_currentSlide = value;
if(_currentSlide < 0) _currentSlide = _slides.length - 1;
if(_currentSlide >= _slides.length) _currentSlide = 0;
var slide:Sprite = _slides[_currentSlide];
// Do something with the new slide, like transition to it.
//
}
public function get currentSlide():int
{
return _currentSlide;
}
}
Now we can transition between slides in the slideshow with a simple:
slideshow.currentSlide = 4;
And even continuously loop the slideshow with consistent use of:
slideshow.currentSlide ++;
There are actually many good reasons to consider using accessors rather than directly exposing fields of a class - beyond just the argument of encapsulation and making future changes easier.
Here are some of the reasons:
Encapsulation of behavior associated with getting or setting the property
this allows additional functionality (like validation) to be added more easily later.
Hiding the internal representation of the property while exposing a property using an alternative representation.
Insulating your public interface from change allowing the public interface to remain constant while the implementation changes without affecting existing consumers.
Controlling the lifetime and memory management (disposal) semantics of the property particularly important in non-managed memory environments (like C++ or Objective-C).
Providing a debugging interception point for when a property changes at runtime - debugging when and where a property changed to a particular value can be quite difficult without this in some languages.
Improved interoperability with libraries that are designed to operate against property getter/settersMocking, Serialization, and WPF come to mind.
Allowing inheritors to change the semantics of how the property behaves and is exposed by overriding the getter/setter methods.
Allowing the getter/setter to be passed around as lambda expressions rather than values.
Getters and setters can allow different access levels for example the get may be public, but the set could be protected.
I need a little help understanding how classes work in Actionscript 3. I understand you start with "package" and why and then go to import any necessary libraries, as well as then naming the class and stating if it's public/private and extends anything.
After that is what I don't understand. It seems you write "(public) function class name()
I don't understand why you do this and what goes in the curly brackets.
I've probably missed a bit of earlier reading because I've done a little reading but I can't seem to get it.
Could someone try explain it to me? Thanks.
ActionScript 3 Classes
The package statement.
Okay, so firstly like you mentioned, a class must be wrapped by a package1. This gives us the first block, where you need to define the class.
package
{
// Your class here.
}
The package statement reflects the location of the class relative to the .fla2. For example, if you have a folder "classes" within the same directory as the project .fla, then classes within that folder will need a package statement that reflects that:
package classes
{
// Your class here.
}
Defining the class.
Within a package statement, you may insert one class. Do not confuse this with the package itself, which can contain many classes - each class just needs to have its own file with the same package statement.
A class definition is made up of up to 5 parts:
The namespace. A class can be internal or public. An internal class can only be seen by classes within the same package, whereas public classes can be seen from anywhere in the project.
The class name.
A base class (optional). If a base class is defined, then your new class will act as an extension to that class, inheriting all of the qualities of the base class.
An interface to implement (optional). Interfaces are an advanced topic thus I suggest you forget about these for now until your AS3 and OOP have evolved.
If you wanted to create a class called "Person" within the package classes, then we would end up with:
package classes
{
public class Person
{
// Class qualities here.
}
}
Properties.
Classes can contain properties. Properties are defined using the var keyword. They may belong to one of a number of namespaces (including your own) and are used to hold values that belong to your class. Properties are most commonly found clustered together at the top of your class.
Our Person class may enjoy the properties height and weight:
package classes
{
public class Person
{
// Properties.
public var height:Number = 1.70;
public var weight:Number = 67.5;
}
}
These properties can be accessed via any instance of Person that you create. Each instance will have its own set of these properties.
Class constructors (I believe this is what you're asking about).
Constructors are used to hold logic that should be run as soon as an instance of your class is created. The class constructor has the same name as the class itself. It must be public and it does not return anything. Constructors can accept arguments, which are typically used to pass in references to dependencies for that class or required values.
package classes
{
public class Person
{
// Properties.
public var height:Number = 1.70;
public var weight:Number = 67.5;
// Constructor.
public function Person(height:Number, weight:Number)
{
this.height = height;
this.weight = weight;
}
}
}
Methods.
Methods are used to hold logic that can be run when calling that method. Methods often return values and can accept arguments. Methods can belong to any namespace that you would expect properties to be able to belong to.
We may want to be able to easily determine the BMI of each instance of Person that we create, so we should create a method for that:
package classes
{
public class Person
{
// Properties.
public var height:Number = 170;
public var weight:Number = 65.5;
// Constructor.
public function Person(height:Number, weight:Number)
{
this.height = height;
this.weight = weight;
}
// Determine my BMI and return the result.
public function getBMI():Number
{
return weight / (height * height);
}
}
}
Instances.
Now that we've defined our new class, we can create instances of this class using the new keyword. This can be done from anywhere that can access the Person class, which in this case is anywhere in the project because we've made the class public.
Though the class is public, accessing it from anywhere outside of the package it belongs in will require the use of an import statement. This statement will need to be used within any class that belongs to a different package. The import statement follows the same name used for the package and includes the name of the class you want to include on the end:
import classes.Person;
Once you've imported Person, you can create instances of it and assign them to a variable with different height and weight values:
var marty:Person = new Person(71, 1.76);
var bruce:Person = new Person(96.4, 1.72);
We can then obtain the BMI for each person using their getBMI() method:
trace(marty.getBMI()); // 22.9
trace(bruce.getBMI()); // 32.6
1 You can place classes outside of a package which can be referred to in the same .as file.
2 You can add more source paths, and packages can be relative to that.
The function that have the same name as class is a constructor. In curly brackets is basically part of code that will execute instantly when object will be created. Try to search info about constructors, they exist I think in every object oriented programming language (I may be wrong), so you have a lot of resources.
You can also read about this concept on Wikipedia.
The function that is named the same as the class is the constructor. It's optional, so you can leave it out if you don't need it. A default constructor will be added, which essentially does nothing.
The constructor lets you write code that executes immediately after an instance of the class is created (ie when another bit of code runs new ClassName(). You would typically use it to initialise some variables that are used by the class. Defining a constructor also lets you handle constructor arguments, which other code can pass when they use the new operator.
So I have made this simple interface:
package{
public interface GraphADT{
function addNode(newNode:Node):Boolean;
}
}
I have also created a simple class Graph:
package{
public class Graph implements GraphADT{
protected var nodes:LinkedList;
public function Graph(){
nodes = new LinkedList();
}
public function addNode (newNode:Node):Boolean{
return nodes.add(newNode);
}
}
last but not least I have created another simple class AdjacancyListGraph:
package{
public class AdjacancyListGraph extends Graph{
public function AdjacancyListGraph(){
super();
}
override public function addNode(newNode:AwareNode):Boolean{
return nodes.add(newNode);
}
}
Having this setup here is giving me errors, namely:
1144: Interface method addNode in namespace GraphADT is implemented with an incompatible signature in class AdjacancyListGraph.
Upon closer inspection it was apparent that AS3 doesn't like the different parameter types from the different Graph classes newNode:Node from Graph , and newNode:AwareNode from AdjacancyListGraph
However I don't understand why that would be a problem since AwareNode is a subClass of Node.
Is there any way I can make my code work, while keeping the integrity of the code?
Simple answer:
If you don't really, really need your 'addNode()' function to accept only an AwareNode, you can just change the parameter type to Node. Since AwareNode extends Node, you can pass in an AwareNode without problems. You could check for type correctness within the function body :
subclass... {
override public function addNode (node:Node ) : Boolean {
if (node is AwareNode) return nodes.add(node);
return false;
}
}
Longer answer:
I agree with #32bitkid that your are getting an error, because the parameter type defined for addNode() in your interface differs from the type in your subclass.
However, the main problem at hand is that ActionScript generally does not allow function overloading (having more than one method of the same name, but with different parameters or return values), because each function is treated like a generic class member - the same way a variable is. You might call a function like this:
myClass.addNode (node);
but you might also call it like this:
myClass["addNode"](node);
Each member is stored by name - and you can always use that name to access it. Unfortunately, this means that you are only allowed to use each function name once within a class, regardless of how many parameters of which type it takes - nothing comes without a price: You gain flexibility in one regard, you lose some comfort in another.
Hence, you are only allowed to override methods with the exact same signature - it's a way to make you stick to what you decided upon when you wrote the base class. While you could obviously argue that this is a bad idea, and that it makes more sense to use overloading or allow different signatures in subclasses, there are some advantages to the way that AS handles functions, which will eventually help you solve your problem: You can use a type-checking function, or even pass one on as a parameter!
Consider this:
class... {
protected function check (node:Node) : Boolean {
return node is Node;
}
public function addNode (node:Node) : Boolean {
if (check(node)) return nodes.add(node);
return false;
}
}
In this example, you could override check (node:Node):
subclass... {
override protected function check (node:Node) : Boolean {
return node is AwareNode;
}
}
and achieve the exact same effect you desired, without breaking the interface contract - except, in your example, the compiler would throw an error if you passed in the wrong type, while in this one, the mistake would only be visible at runtime (a false return value).
You can also make this even more dynamic:
class... {
public function addNode (node:Node, check : Function ) : Boolean {
if (check(node)) return nodes.add(node);
return false;
}
}
Note that this addNode function accepts a Function as a parameter, and that we call that function instead of a class method:
var f:Function = function (node:Node) : Boolean {
return node is AwareNode;
}
addNode (node, f);
This would allow you to become very flexible with your implementation - you can even do plausibility checks in the anonymous function, such as verifying the node's content. And you wouldn't even have to extend your class, unless you were going to add other functionality than just type correctness.
Having an interface will also allow you to create implementations that don't inherit from the original base class - you can write a whole different class hierarchy, it only has to implement the interface, and all your previous code will remain valid.
I guess the question is really this: What are you trying to accomplish?
As to why you are getting an error, consider this:
public class AnotherNode extends Node { }
and then:
var alGraph:AdjacancyListGraph = new AdjacancyListGraph();
alGraph.addNode(new AnotherNode());
// Wont work. AnotherNode isn't compatable with the signature
// for addNode(node:AwareNode)
// but what about the contract?
var igraphADT:GraphADT = GraphADT(alGraph);
igraphADT.addNode(new AnotherNode()); // WTF?
According to the interface this should be fine. But your implemenation says otherwise, your implemenation says that it will only accept a AwareNode. There is an obvious mismatch. If you are going to have an interface, a contract that your object should follow, then you might as well follow it. Otherwise, whats the point of the interface in the first place.
I submit that architecture messed up somewhere if you are trying to do this. Even if the language were to support it, I would say that its a "Bad Idea™"
There's an easier way, then suggested above, but less safe:
public class Parent {
public function get foo():Function { return this._foo; }
protected var _foo:Function = function(node:Node):void { ... }}
public class Child extends Parent {
public function Child() {
super();
this._foo = function(node:AnotherNode):void { ... }}}
Of course _foo needs not be declared in place, the syntax used is for shortness and demonstration purposes only.
You will loose the ability of the compiler to check types, but the runtime type matching will still apply.
Yet another way to go about it - don't declare methods in the classes they specialize on, rather make them static, then you will not inherit them automatically:
public class Parent {
public static function foo(parent:Parent, node:Node):Function { ... }}
public class Child extends Parent {
public static function foo(parent:Child, node:Node):Function { ... }}
Note that in second case protected fields are accessible inside the static method, so you can achieve certain encapsulation. Besides, if you have a lot of Parent or Child instances, you will save on individual instance memory footprint (as static methods therefore static there exists only one copy of them, but instance methods would be copied for each instance). The disadvantage is that you won't be able to use interfaces (can be actually an improvement... depends on your personal preferences).
Phrased differently, this question could read, "What is the order of compile-time variable declarations and definitions?"
I can't recall specific examples at the moment, but I know I've run into trouble when initializing const and static values in my class definitions due to the declaration of those values occurring out of order.
I know I can instantiate objects when declaring static const members, like so:
public class ConstsWithNewObjects {
public static const DEFINED_NOW_2:Object = {something:"Defined!"};
public static const DEFINED_NOW_3:Object = new CustomObject("Defined!");
}
But, if I'm accessing one of those members from another static or const value, I imagine race conditions arising, like so:
public class ConstsWithOtherConsts {
public static const DEFINED_NOW_1:Object = DEFINED_NOW_3; // Does this exist, yet?
}
ActoinScript Hero Jack Dunstan has covered this exact topic in great detail on his blog: Class Bootup Part 2.
Regardless of Jack's findings; I would recommend, for the sanity of your readers; that you keep your static initialiser code as clean, and simple as possible - don't forget that static fields can call static methods; you can also make use of a static Class initialiser method as well.
I'm working through the book Head First C# (and it's going well so far), but I'm having a lot of trouble wrapping my head around the syntax involved with using the "this." keyword.
Conceptually, I get that I'm supposed to use it to avoid having a parameter mask a field of the same name, but I'm having trouble actually tracking it through their examples (also, they don't seem to have a section dedicated to that particular keyword, they just explain it and start using it in their examples).
Does anyone have any good rules of thumb they follow when applying "this."? Or any tutorials online that explain it in a different way that Head First C#?
Thanks!
Personally I only use it when I have to which is:
Constructor chaining:
public Foo(int x) : this(x, null)
{
}
public Foo(int x, string name)
{
...
}
Copying from a parameter name into a field (not as common in C# as in Java, as you'd usually use a property - but common in constructors)
public void SetName(string name)
{
// Just "name = name" would be no-op; within this method,
// "name" refers to the parameter, not the field
this.name = name;
}
Referring to this object without any members involved:
Console.WriteLine(this);
Declaring an extension method:
public static TimeSpan Days(this int days)
{
return TimeSpan.FromDays(days);
}
Some other people always use it (e.g. for other method calls) - personally I find that clutters things up a bit.
StyleCop's default coding style enforces the following rule:
A1101: The call to {method or property
name} must begin with the 'this.'
prefix to indicate that the item is a
member of the class.
Which means that every method, field, property that belongs to the current class will be prefixed by this. I was initially resistant to this rule, which makes your code more verbose, but it has grown on me since, as it makes the code pretty clear. This thread discusses the question.
I write this. if and only if it enhances readability, for example, when implementing a Comparable interface (Java, but the idea is the same):
public void compareTo(MyClass other) {
if (this.someField > other.someField) return 1;
if (this.someField < other.someField) return -1;
return 0;
}
As to parameter shadowing (e.g. in constructors): I usually give those a shorter name of the corresponding field, such as:
class Rect {
private int width, height;
public Rect(int w, int h) {
width = w;
height = h;
}
}
Basically, this gives you a reference to the current object. You can use it to access members on the object, or to pass the current object as parameters into other methods.
It is entirely unnecessary in almost all cases to place it before accessing member variables or method calls, although some style guidelines recommend it for various reasons.
Personally, I make sure I name my member variables to be clearly different from my parameters to avoid ever having to use 'this.'. For example:
private String _someData;
public String SomeData
{
get{return _someData;}
set{_someData = value;}
}
It's very much an individual preference though, and some people will recommend that you name the property and member variable the same (just case difference - 'someData' and 'SomeData') and use the this keyword when accessing the private member to indicate the difference.
So as for a rule of thumb - Avoid using it. If you find yourself using it to distinguish between local/parameters variables and member variables then rename one of them so you don't have to use 'this'.
The cases where I would use it are multiple constructors, passing a reference to other methods and in extension methods. (See Jon's answer for examples)
If you have a method inside a class which uses same class's fields, you can use this.
public class FullName
{
public string fn { set; get; }
public string sn { set; get; }
//overriding Equals method
public override bool Equals(object obj)
{
if (!(obj is FullName))
return false;
if (obj == null)
return false;
return this.fn == ((FullName)obj).fn &&
this.sn == ((FullName)obj).sn;
}
//overriding GetHashCode
public override int GetHashCode()
{
return this.fn.GetHashCode() ^ this.sn.GetHashCode();
}
}